Mt. Alatorre-Ibargengoitia et al. Hurtling through the air at speeds reaching hundreds of metres per second, they travel in parabolic arcs and are capable of striking ground up to . The high kinetic and thermal energy of ballistics can puncture, dent, melt, burn and knock down structures and their associated systems, such as power supply and telecommunication masts; crater roads; and crush and potentially ignite crops (Booth 1979; Calvari et al. This involved a combination of reviewing the eruptive record to understand eruption frequency and magnitude, and expert elicitation by GNS staff (the institute responsible for monitoring volcanoes and assessing their hazard/risk) working closely with the land manager (Department of Conservation) to produce three possible future eruption scenarios (a 21 November size eruption, a 6 August size eruption, and a magnitude larger eruption) and associated probabilities of these occurring. Accessed Jul 21 2015, NIED (1980) Field report of the disaster from Ontake 1979 eruption. This report (1) explains the various types of hazardous geologic phenomena that could occur at Mount Rainier, (2 . Ballistic projectiles. 2014; Jolly et al. The densest zone (A) encompasses areas with impact densities >10 impacts per 55m, decreasing in density with distance from the vent to Zone C which has between 0 and 2 impacts per 55m. We identify from review of literature and analysis of the four case study volcanoes (Table2) that understanding the risk context is highly important for effective communication associated with ballistic hazard and risk. deposits leads to increased runoff, accelerated erosion, stream-channel Ballistic projectiles. Ballistic hazard maps are rare as they are typically not the only hazard produced in an eruption. a Electronic signs communicating risk level and track closure at entrances to the volcano and where it crosses the AVHZ. In collaboration with researchers from the USGS Volcano Hazards Program, the Hazards Vulnerability Team worked on better understanding and communicating. The May 18, 1980 tephraplumelasted for about eight hours and the plume top ranged from 1418 km (8.511 mi) high. Note that map A is shown as an inset on map B with an explanation as to the complementary but differing nature of the two communication products. Longer periods of precursory activity allow time for warnings to be issued. Volcanic explosions can propel rock fragments onballistictrajectories that may differ from the wind direction. 1998; Maeno et al. 2014). However, it was not publically available before the August 6th eruption (Leonard et al. It may not be needed or appropriate for the methods to be presented to the stakeholders in depth but instead it be communicated that they are available if requested. . Plasma without the clotting proteins is called a serum. 2014). (<2mm) Coarser lapilli. Strombolian and Vulcanian eruptions have been relatively continuous since 1774 (Eissen et al. Potential hazards posed by U.S. volcanoes include tephra falls, pyroclastic flows and surges, VOG, ballistic projectiles, lahar and lava flows. Work is underway to develop ballistic and life safety models to better inform zone radius. 2014), making it difficult to deterministically forecast future ballistic distributions. 3). Three other notable risk communication and mitigation measures have been implemented at Sakurajima. J Volcanol Geoth Res 286:184207, Kagoshima City (2010) Sakurajima Volcano hazard map. At what radius, in nm\mathrm{nm}nm, would the electron orbiting the proton in a hydrogen atom emit light with a wavelength of 600nm600 \mathrm{~nm}600nm ? These events may occur without warning and in the absence of a larger magmatic eruption. Densities vary greatly, from that of pumice (<0.5)) to solid pieces of lava with density about 3.0. Multiple factors contributed to the high fatality rate: The eruption happened in peak season when ~340 people were on the mountain. ORSTOM (Noumea) 2, Erfurt-Cooper P (2010) Volcano and geothermal tourism in Kyushu, Japan. The August 2012 eruption of Upper Te Maari is the most comparable to the Ontake eruption as it was largely unheralded and of the same explosivity. hljc`s gio hjfhs cgi bgvk vkljceteks jn 4;-8== f/s. Another frequently active volcano in which ballistics are a major hazard is Sakurajima Volcano, Japan. It is a synonym for "pyroclastic material." Tephra ranges in size from ash (<2 mm) to lapilli (2-64 mm) to blocks and bombs (>64 mm). Disasters 20(1):4960, Calvari S, Spampinato L, Lodato L (2006) The 5 April 2003 vulcanian paroxysmal explosion at Stromboli volcano (Italy) from field observations and thermal data. Effective ballistic risk assessment requires greater understanding of (a) the distribution of ballistic from a range of potential eruption styles, (b) the impact of ballistics to people and other societal assets (vulnerability/fragility characteristics), and (c) identification and (crucially) evaluation of what are the most appropriate mitigation actions to reduce ballistic risks before, during and after an eruption. Pyroclastic flows and surges are potentially highly destructive owing to their mass, high temperature, high velocity This is associated with an upgrade of Vanuatus active volcanoes to real-time warning (at the time of writing this included a seismometer and webcam on Yasur and daily OMI satellite monitoring of SO2 emissions; Vanuatu Geohazards Observatory 2014), supported by the New Zealand Aid Programme and GNS Science in partnership with VMGD. 2014b). For each pair of terms, explain how the meanings of the terms differ. However, it is imperative to think of the risk context when making these decisions, as every situation is different. 2013). J Volcanol Geoth Res 286:348366, Maeno F, Nakada S, Nagai M, Kozono T (2013) Ballistic ejecta and eruption condition of the vulcanian explosion of Shinmoedake volcano, Kyushu, Japan on 1 February, 2011. ff ei oegfktkr0 heddkr pufeck nrgdfkits fexko wetb neikr gsb, 9>? Eruption frequency and magnitude, the extent of past ballistic distributions, and modelling of possible future trajectories were not investigated. It is a synonym for "pyroclastic material." Tephra ranges in size from ash (2 mm) to lapilli (2-64 mm) to blocks and bombs (>64 mm). J Volcanol Geoth Res 77:89100, Barclay J, Haynes K, Mitchell T, Solana C, Teeuw R, Darnell A, Crosweller HS, Cole P, Pyle D, Lowe C, Fearnley C, Kelman I (2008) Framing volcanic risk communication within disaster risk reduction: finding ways for the social and physical sciences to work together. from an erupion of Mount Vesuvius; 29,000 people were destroyed by clothes over the mouth and nose because tephra can contain harmful Text is provided, with instructions including to move quickly down off the mountain and away from summit hazard areas, though ballistics-specific advice was not provided (GNS Science 2007). 12201 Sunrise Valley Drive Reston, VA 20192. 1c, e), infrastructure, property and the surrounding environment (Fig. Many people and d GeoNet website showing monitoring data such as Volcanic Alert Level, seismic drums and visuals of the volcano. An official website of the United States government. The term tephra defines all pieces of . change rainfall/runoff relationships. e A Volcanic Alert Bulletin issued on the GeoNet website and distributed to media following the 2012 Upper Te Maari eruption. Official websites use .gov BALLISTIC PROJECTILES BALLISTIC PROJECTILES. Best practice suggests the use of multiple sources to disseminate hazard and risk information as preferred forms of media accessed for information vary (Sorensen 2000; Mileti et al. In collaboration with researchers from the USGS Volcano Hazards Program, the Hazards Vulnerability Team worked on better understanding and communicating. Half of the people autopsied by one doctor were found with cellphones in hand while one persons camera was found with a photo taken 4 min after the eruption occurred (Mainichi Shimbun 10/10/2014). Volcanicashmay pose hazards hundreds of kilometers downwind from source, directly after accumulating at the surface and later, when particles are remobilized by wind or passing vehicles. Tephra falls, pyroclastic flows and pyroclastic surges, ballistic projectiles, and lava flows occur only during eruptions. Precursory activity only increased 11min prior to eruption, resulting in an unexpected eruption. This places more emphasis and weight on the availability of background hazard maps with messaging covering actions in events up to this size, signage around the volcano (in language(s) appropriate for the audience to comprehend, especially if there is a large proportion of visitors who speak a different language), on pamphlets distributed to businesses and visitors actually reading them, and through communication with their guides. 2014). Though ballistics are included, they are not ascribed a probability of occurrence, instead, one zone at risk of ballistic fall is defined by the maximum travel distance for ballistics up to 0.1m in diameter. 2014; Pardo et al. Accessed 28 Oct 2014, The Japan Times 27/9/2015. a. DEFINITION. Many more people have been injured as a result of ballistic impacts, frequently suffering from blunt force trauma (broken bones), lacerations, burns, abrasions and bruising (Blong 1984; Baxter and Gresham 1997). Tephra falls do pose a risk to lives; however, pyroclastic flows are the chief cause . Studies of these deposits reveal that we should anticipate potential hazards from some phenomena that only occur during eruptions and from others that may occur without eruptive activity. 2012; Tsunematsu et al. Int J Environ Health Res 12(2):109123, Cronin SJ, Gaylord DR, Charley D, Alloway BV, Wallez S, Esau JW (2004) Participatory methods of incorporating scientific with traditional knowledge for volcanic hazard management on Ambae Island, Vanuatu. These assessments also need to be communicated to the public so that they can make informed decisions about the hazard and risk in the area they choose to enter as well as what steps they need to take to protect themselves. 2007; Thompson et al. Additionally, Ketetahi Hut, an overnight hut along the TAC, was severely damaged by ballistics. Successful management of ballistic risk requires effective engagement (of which communication is a keystone) between authorities responsible for managing risk at volcanoes, those people and organisations who may have economic, cultural and social connections with a volcano, and the scientific community who can help inform hazard and (sometimes) risk considerations. A reinforced public shelter and wardens quarters was one option being considered to replace the damaged Ketetahi Hut. Coombs et al. Altmetric, Part of the Advances in Volcanology book series (VOLCAN). United States Geological Survey Open File Report 00-519, Plate1, NHK (Japan Broadcasting Corporation) (2015). The parameter by which the zone is based on is not provided (e.g. Yasur is one of Vanuatus main tourist attractions with some twenty thousand people visiting the crater rim each year. Multiple zones of different impact intensity may be shown (e.g. An effective hazard map for the public contains clear information on what are the consequences of the hazard(s), where they occur, and what to do (Leonard et al. In many instances, it may not be possible or warranted to complete all of the steps involved in an ideal risk assessment. 2014; Lube et al. Ballistics at these constantly erupting volcanoes provide tangible hazards that the community can both relate to and provide valuable observational data on. A hazard map is displayed at the carpark before the ascent up the cone, highlighting the 1999 lava bomb impact zone and the observation location for each volcanic alert levelas the alert level increases so does the distance of the observation position from the cone (i.e. An assessment for a frequently erupting, highly visited volcano where risk management organisations are well resourced will require a different approach compared with an infrequently active, rarely visited volcano in a country where there are few resources available for risk management. Many volcanoes are tourist destinations with associated tourist facilities such as ski fields, accommodation and walking tracks (Erfurt-Cooper 2011). The hydrothermal eruption produced multiple pyroclastic surges, an ~8km high ash plume and ejected thousands of ballistic blocks (Fitzgerald et al. Engagement allows the community to be prepared in the event of an eruption and to know what to do in the event that they are within hazard areas. Hint: Start with the highest power of x and work down in finding the correct combination. Bull Volc 35:383401, Geological Survey of Japan (2013) Sakurajima Volcano, 2nd edn. Pyroclastic density currents (PDCs) and lava flows are not included in a hazard zone but are mentioned as a possibility in all valleys. 485490, Kilgour G, Della Pasqua F, Hodgson KA, Jolly GE (2010) The 25 September 2007 eruption of Mount Ruapehu, New Zealand: directed ballistics, surtseyan jets, and ice-slurry lahars. R. H. Fitzgerald . Effective communication is essential in managing ballistic hazard and risk (Barclay et al. A new, event-specific Te Maari hazard map was created using mapped deposits and the most likely hazard scenarios, in which the main hazard zone was increased to a 3km radius (choosing the larger potential radius based on historic events) down-slope and deliberately renamed the Active Volcanic Hazard Zone (AVHZ) to distinguish it from the former map (Fig. Methods and assessments should also be made fully available to other scientists so that these methods can be adopted at other volcanoes if chosen, which would increase best-practice and encourage similar and comparable methodologies. Geophys Res Lett 25(18):34293432, Scott BJ, Potter SH (2014) Aspects of historical eruptive activity and volcanic unrest at Mt. 2010). For example, where frequent Strombolian eruptions are the main source of ballistics, it may be possible to watch the low velocity ballistics and move out of their path. Methods must also be integrated with the management of other risks, ideally in one cohesive approach. Airborne ash causes eye and respiratory irritation, damages unprotected machinery (especially internalcombustion engines), and often causes short circuits in electricpower transmission and distribution lines. Click to read further detail. and several of the most notorious volcanoes have been designated as This was a much shorter period of precursory activity than previous eruptions. The event-specific hazard maps are generally shared around the various media outlets (e.g., television, radio, newspapers, Facebook, Twitter) to inform the public of the updated hazard, as well as through the usual means of communication. Ballistic impacts on a glacier cause punctual melting of snow and ice. It is also therefore important for scientists and emergency managers to be honest about what is/is not known to maintain credibility and trust (Lindell 2013). The term tephra defines all pieces of all fragments of rock ejected into the air by an erupting volcano. TheVolcanic Ash webpagesare intended to help people prepare and recover from volcanic ashfall. 2008). Bull Volcanol 46(4):333348, Swanson DA, Zolkos SP, Haravitch B (2012) Ballistic blocks around Klauea Caldera: Their vent locations and number of eruptions in the late 18th century. changes and hazardous floods. Additionally, damage to buildings (Fig. Ontake, Japan the National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention in Japan (NIED, though now renamed to National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Resilience) completed a report recommending: regulations on development and land-use, building of ballistic shelters and evacuation facilities, and the development of emergency plans, as an eruption in the summer hiking season would likely result in human casualties (NIED 1980). Et es g spkcegl `eio jn tkpbrg. This is a critical issue for managing ballistic risk, as eruptions with longer unrest phases typically allow evacuation of ballistic hazard zones before the eruption. J Geol Soc 136(3):331340, Bower S, Woods A (1996) On the dispersal of clasts from volcanic craters during small explosive eruptions. Access is generally controlled at all times (even during periods of quiescence), sometimes with permanent restriction zones in which nobody is allowed to enter due to the risk of being struck by ballistics (Kagoshima City 2010). All groups therefore need to communicate with each other, preferably prior to a volcanic crisis, with communication products tailored to the audience (Haynes et al. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Ljw pkrfkghelety jn neik gsb, okpjsets lkgos tj eicrkgsko ruijnn, gccklkrgtko krjseji, strkgf-cbgiikl cbgidks gio, bgzgrojus nljjos. Here, we review the research to date on ballistic distributions, impacts, hazard and risk assessments and maps, and methods of communicating and managing ballistic risk including how these change with a changing risk environment. This chapter is published under an open access license. _____________________________________________________________________. Most tephra falls back onto the slopes of the volcano, enlarging it. A place in Colombia where the deadliest lahars occured in volcanic history. Strong winds may shape lava into hair-like fragments. 2007; Bird et al. During the crisis, hazard maps are typically updated and hazard and risk assessments modified. www.tongariro.org.nz/tongarirojournals. Department of Science and Technology, University College London, London, UK, Institute of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Iceland, Reykjavk, Iceland, Department of Geography and Planning, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia, UCL Hazard Centre, Department of Earth Sciences, University College London, London, UK. Fragments Water flows in an open rectangular channel at a depth of 3ft3 \mathrm{ft}3ft with a velocity of 12ft/sec12~\mathrm{ft} / \mathrm{sec}12ft/sec. The ranges of pyroclasts ejected in transient volcanic explosions. Tephra falls. However, quiescent volcanoes may not be the primary target for in-depth assessment. (2007) evaluated the effectiveness of volcanic hazard maps as communication tools on Montserrat, West Indies and found that the use of aerial photographs as a basemap improved peoples ability to comprehend hazard information compared to traditional contour basemaps. particles generally travel further and cover a greater area in Vulcanian eruptions (Nairn and Self 1978; Alatorre-Ibargengoitia et al. 2012; Gurioli et al. Part of Springer Nature. For this reason, the number of particles, sizes of particles, and spatial density per unit area is rarely reported (only four publications could be found with this level of detailPistolesi et al. Seismicity declined in the days prior to eruption and thus the TAC remained open to tourists (Jolly et al. Sakurajima is constantly monitored by the Sakurajima Volcano Observatory and is considered to be one of the best monitored volcanoes in Japan (GSJ 2013). Hljc`s grk lgrdk hrj`ki pekcks jr cbeps nrjf tbk, Ets okpjsets grk okrevko nrjf ]leiegi kruptejis le`k tbk typk wbecb jccurko ei, Ets okpjsets grk prjoucts jn Strjfhjlegi kruptejis jn hgsgltec tj gioksetec, Lgpelle-sezk nrgdfkits jn hgsgltec lgvg fgy cjjl quec`ly wbelk gerhjrik, tj njrf. Tephra falls skip hugging the slope and go directly to the ground. (1999). Omayra Sanchez - 13 y/o - Armero town - Nevado del Ruiz in Columbia - 60 hrs submerged in water. Many people live in close proximity to the volcano (~4900 within 5km of the volcano) and millions visit the Kagoshima-Sakurajima area each year (3,702,000 in 2010; Japan Meteorological Agency 2013b), thus JMA and Kagoshima City released a volcanic hazard map with additional information in 2010. In addition, visitors to Yasur are warned by a sign to Think Safety before ascending the crater rim, though no further instructions or information is provided. burl eitj tbk ger. Ballistic projectiles Ballistic projectiles are rocks that an erupting volcano may hurl into the air. Tephra Falls and Ballistic Projectiles - refers to volcanic rock and lava materials that are ejected into the air by explosions or carried upward by the eruption column's hot gases or lava fountains. electric-transmission facilities, telephone lines, radio and television Fortunately, the eruption occurred at night, in winter (the low season) and in bad weather, resulting in no hikers along the TAC or staying at Ketetahi Hut (both around 1.5km away from the vent and well within the impacted area). 1998; Kaneko et al. 2016). 2014b). Real-time warning systems triggered by monitoring equipment, such as the EDS (Eruption Detection System) system installed on Mt. Ruapehu, New Zealand (Leonard et al. Yasur is visited by much fewer tourists than Ontake so it is unlikely to see as many fatalities from one event as occurred at Ontake, although the lack of shelter, lack of hazard advice, and proximity to the vent means that ballistic casualties are still relatively likely at this volcano. Ballistics are not a hazard in isolation. 2016). The Communication and Risk Management of Volcanic Ballistic Hazards. Ei cjitrgst, tbec`, cjgrsk-drgeiko okpjsets cljsko tj tbk sjurck cgi. 2010; Houghton et al. What is the total mechanical energy of this atom? Rapid cooling of basaltic lava while still in the air produce teardrop-shaped lapilli-sized fragments. Ballistics are fragments of lava (bombs) or rock (blocks) ejected in explosive eruptions (Fig. Accessed 28 Oct 2014, The Japan News 27/10/2014. Tephra falls and Ballistic Projectiles formed on Land Tephra consists of pyroclastic fragments of any size and origin. Int J Mass Emerg Disasters 13(1):723, Eissen JP, Blot C, Louat R (1991) Chronologie de lactivit volcanique historique de larc insulaire des Nouvelles-Hbrides de 1595 1991. The volcano tourism industry is also growing (Sigurdsson and Lopes-Gautier 1999; Erfurt-Cooper 2011), increasing the number of people exposed to ballistic hazard in proximal areas. 1999, 2000; Paton et al. We summarise the three that could be found. Ashfalloutcaused major problems in communities up to 600 km (370 mi) away. The risk assessments by Jolly et al. http://www.nhk.or.jp/d-navi/link/ontake2014-en/index.html. Aircraft that fly in the dense network of aviation routes across the Cascade Range carry nearly 200,000 people daily over Cascade airspacean amount equivalent to the population of the City of Spokane, Washington. Multiple pyroclastic surges were produced, travelling up to 2.5km from vent, in addition to ballistics that impacted up to 1km from the vent (Kaneko et al. Nat Hazards. 2014; Jenkins et al. c. [] surface-drainage systems and sewage treatment plants, and short circuit Ballistic projectiles. At low levels the wind pattern is ____________. Maps should be updated in a crisis to reflect new information and readily available through a range of media. Ballistic hazard assessments determine the likelihood of ballistic-producing eruptions and the areas that may be impacted (Thouret et al. In October 2013 electronic warning signs were installed that informed hikers of the status of the volcanoa red flashing light meant danger-turn back, orange elevated risk and green normal volcanic activity (Jolly et al. Both prefectures have developed hazard maps for two eruption scenarios that include ballisticsthe first a phreatic eruption similar in size to the 1979 eruption (VEI 2) and the second a larger eruption on the scale of 90,00020,000year recurrence interval (Nagano hazard map: http://vivaweb2.bosai.go.jp/v-hazard/L_read/53ontakesan/53ontake_2h03-L.pdf; Gifu hazard map: http://vivaweb2.bosai.go.jp/v-hazard/L_read/53ontakesan/53ontake_2h01-L.pdf). Ballistic hazard is confined to one hazard zone (a 5km concentric radius around the vent), whose extent is based on Blongs (1996) assessment that ballistics generally do not travel further than 5km from vent. Consist of bombs, blocks, and lapilli. J Volcanol Geoth Res 172(34):199215, Leonard GS, Stewart C, Wilson TM, Procter JN, Scott BJ, Keys HJ, Jolly GE, Wardman JB, Cronin SJ, McBride SK (2014) Integrating multidisciplinary science, modelling and impact data into evolving, syn-event volcanic hazard mapping and communication: a case study from the 2012 Tongariro eruption crisis, New Zealand. Mt. Nature 285:531533, Cole JW, Cowan HA, Webb TA (2006) The 2006 Raoul Island Eruptiona review of GNS sciences actions. ]kg- tj wgliut-sezk pyrjclgsts (8 tj >? Public availability may include being posted on signs around the volcanoes entrance(s), in a pamphlet or similar printed media at tourist facilities (e.g. If the August 2012 eruption had occurred in peak tourist season, then a similar amount of fatalities as Ontake potentially could have occurred. ): the distributions of volcanic bombs ejected by the recent explosions of Asama. Bull Volc 74(9):21552169, CrossRef It also endangers aircraft, which may completely lose engine power if they fly through ash clouds. deposits closed to the source can increase infiltration capacity and The map, published in 2007, consists of a summit hazard zone around each active vent, encompassing gas and ballistics at radii of 23km for different vents based on experience of ballistic ranges in past eruptions at Tongariro National Park. An updated risk management framework has been developed from 2012 to 2016 including updated bulletins and VALs, background and safety (crisis) hazard maps, and tourist information including education and safety map information. Kakcteji vkljceteks grk ei tbk rgidk jn 4;f/s tj 38=, f/s. The main way assessments are communicated is through a map (Haynes et al. human lungs, industrial machines, and nuclear power plants, and (4) Ballistics (called cinders) are additionally listed on the site as a possible volcanic hazard accompanied by a description, particle size and travel distance. Burial by tephra can collapse roofs of buildings, break power and 2008; Alatorre-Ibargengoitia et al. Ontake risks reported in 1979. http://the-japan-news.com/news/article/0001673442. ff). Though work has been completed on ballistic hazard (e.g., mapping deposits, better understanding eruption dynamics and the factors that influence ballistic distribution, recording particle velocities, the creation and use of ballistic trajectory models, and the production of hazard maps either focussed solely on ballistics or as an aspect of a multi-hazard map), very little has been focussed on the management of ballistic risk, leaving a large knowledge gap and a need for research in this area. When activity changes, alert levels are posted on the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) website for the public to view. Establishing this context and identifying potential risks requires engagement with potential stakeholders, such as those which may be exposed or affected by ballistic, or other, volcanic hazards. Ballistics are usually represented by one hazard zone, often based on the maximum or expected travel distance of a ballistic clast. - 52.26.228.196. Tephra falls, pyroclastic flows and pyroclastic surges, ballistic projectiles, and lava flows occur only during eruptions. The publics response to volcanic hazard communication is influenced by the content and attractiveness of the message (which should include a description of the hazard, its impacts, hazard extent, and advice on what to do and when), how comprehensible it is, and the frequency and number of channels the message is received from, as well as the extent of public belief that safety actions are possible and will be effective (Leonard et al. 2012; Jolly et al. Blocks from basement material may exceed 3.0. Organisational and governance frameworks to allow and facilitate this seem to be highly variable globally, but some relatively successful examples do exist (e.g. However, if it had been possible to issue a warning when the precursory activity increased on the day of the 2014 eruption, it is unlikely that it would have resulted in no fatalities. Geol Soc Am Bull 112:720726, Jolly AD, Jousset P, Lyons JJ, Carniel R, Fournier N, Fry B, Miller C (2014a) Seismo-acoustic evidence for an avalanche driven phreatic eruption through a beheaded hydrothermal system: An example from the 2012 Tongariro eruption. the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were destroyed in 79 AD While the extent of theseashlayers is widespread, minor eruptions of ash from any Cascade Range volcano can cause serious societal disruptions.
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