The Clean Water Act addressed a classic externality. Beginning in 1977, grants provided a higher 85% subsidy to projects using innovative technology, such as those sending waste-water through constructed wetlands for treatment. Hence our preferred housing estimates come from difference-in-differences regressions analyzing homes within a 25-mile radius of river segments that are downstream of treatment plants. Choosing Environmental Policy: Comparing Instruments and Outcomes in the United States and Europe, Contingent Valuation: From Dubious to Hopeless, Nor Any Drop to Drink: Public Regulation of Water Quality. Analysis includes homes within a given distance of downstream river segments. The 1.4 ratio and the 34-mile calculation from the previous paragraph both use survey weights. Related patterns have been found for air pollution, and suggest that allowing the stringency of pollution regulation to vary over space has potential to increase social welfare. Alternatively, the most distant travelers might be marginal. Finally, we interpret our pass-through estimates cautiously because they reflect only 198 cities, do not use upstream waters as a comparison group, and reflect pass-through of marginal changes in investment, rather than the entire Clean Water Act. Water is one of the resources on the Earth that is becoming more and more scarce and the . These regressions are described in equation (4) from the text. Column (3) includes all plants and grants with minimum required data (e.g., grants linked to the exact treatment plant even if without latitude or longitude data) and assumes all plants have 25 miles of rivers downstream. Propensity score for appearing in the balanced panel of cities is estimated as a function of log city population, log city total municipal expenditure, city type (municipality or township), and census division fixed effects, where city population and expenditure are averaged over all years of the data. Q_{icy}=\sum _{\tau =1963}^{\tau =2001}\alpha _{\tau }1[y_{y}=\tau ]+X_{icy}^{^{\,\,\prime }}\beta +\delta _{i}+\epsilon _{icy}. The basis of the CWA was enacted in 1948 and was called the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, but the Act was significantly . Land Rents, Local Productivity, and the Total Value of Amenities, Watersheds in Child Mortality: The Role of Effective Water and Sewerage Infrastructure, 1880 to 1920, Failure to Act: The Economic Impact of Current Investment Trends in Water and Wastewater Treatment Infrastructure, Mostly Harmless Econometrics: An Empiricists Companion, Subjective vs. Sample size in all regressions is 6,336. Notes. In 2020, the Clean Air Act Amendments will prevent over 230,000 early deaths. The Clean Water Act has protected our health for more than 40 years -- and helped our nation clean up hundreds of thousands of miles of polluted waterways. We assume that housing markets are competitive and that each consumer rents one house. First, the analysis is based on only 198 cities. The Clean Water Act was produced as a means for the EPA to implement pollution control programs alongside setting water quality standards for all contaminants in surface waters. The cost-effectiveness is defined as the annual public expenditure required to decrease dissolved oxygen deficits in a river-mile by 10 percentage points or to make a river-mile fishable. This article is published and distributed under the terms of the Oxford University Press, Standard Journals Publication Model (. Dissolved oxygen deficit equals 100 minus dissolved oxygen saturation, measured in percentage points. Temperature is increasing by about 1F per 40years, which is consistent with effects from climate change. We also discuss trends in three other groups of water quality measures: industrial pollutants, nutrients, and general measures of water quality (Online Appendix TableIV).18 All three industrial pollutants have declined rapidly. Column (3) adds river basin year fixed effects. Online Appendix FigureVI shows national trends in federal versus state and local spending on wastewater treatment capital over 19601983.21 State and local spending on wastewater treatment capital declined steadily from a total of |${\$}$|43 billion in 1963 to |${\$}$|22 billion in 1971 and then to |${\$}$|7 billion annually by the late 1970s. The largest ratios of estimated benefits to costs are for areas where outdoor fishing or swimming is common (ratio of 0.53), for high-amenity urban areas (ratio of 0.40), and in the South (ratio of 0.84). This does not seem consistent with our results because it would likely create pretrends in pollution or home values, whereas we observe none. Notes. Online Appendix E.3 discusses interpretations of our housing estimates under alternative pass-through numbers. The Author(s) 2018. 33 U.S.C. See Kline and Walters (2016) for a related analysis in education. As in most event study analyses, only a subset of event study indicators are observed for all grants. Water is a critical source that is utilized by most living things on Earth to support it ways of live. It is interesting to consider possible explanations for these slowing trends. Home prices and rents are deflated to 2014 dollars by the Bureau of Labor Statistics consumer price index for urban consumers. Incomplete information would be especially important if pollution abatement improves health. Online Appendix E.2 discusses how cost-effectiveness numbers change with alternative estimates of crowding out.22. Parts of the Clean Air Act use cap-and-trade systems, but nearly none of the Clean Water Act does. The curve 2 describes the bid function for another type of consumer. Estimates appear in Online Appendix TableVIII and discussion appears in Online Appendix E.3. Before The Clean Water Act. Panel A reports estimates of how grants affect log mean home values. We estimate many sensitivity analyses, including restricting to high-quality subsamples of the data, adding important controls, weighting by population, and many others. The decline in mercury is noteworthy given the recent controversy of the Mercury and Air Toxics Standards (MATS) policy that would regulate mercury from coal-fired power plants. We considered a fourth repository, the Sustaining the Earths Watersheds: Agricultural Research Data System (STEWARDS), managed by the USDA. Fishable readings have BOD below 2.4mg/L, dissolved oxygen above 64% saturation (equivalently, dissolved oxygen deficits below 36%), fecal coliforms below 1,000 MPN/100mL, and TSS below 50mg/L. Brackets show 95% confidence intervals. The EPA did audit grants to minimize malfeasance. A review of 10 U.S. studies found pass-through estimates between 0.25 and 1.06 (Hines and Thaler 1995). The main regression sample includes only a balanced panel of tracts that appear in all four censuses between 1970 and 2000; imputing values for missing homes hardly changes the ratio in column (4). The share of waters that are fishable has grown by 12 percentage points since the Clean Water Act. First, we limit regression estimates to the set of tracts reporting home values in all four years 1970, 1980, 1990, and 2000. It remains one of our nation's most vital safeguards for the health and safety of our communities and our environment. Panel C estimates the effect of grants on log housing units and Panel D on the log of the total value of the housing stock. The year in these data refers to each local governments fiscal year. 2001; Jeon etal. The only econometric analysis we know of such policies tests how the French policy of jointly taxing industrial air pollution and subsidizing abatement technologies affected emissions, using data from 226 plants (Millock and Nauges 2006). These estimates are even less positive than the estimates for housing. Another possible channel involves ecology. Some nutrients like ammonia and phosphorus are declining, while others like nitrates are unchanged. Panel B analyzes how grants affect log mean rental values. Panels A and B show different ranges of values on their y-axes. We also report event study graphs of outcomes relative to the year when a facility receives a grant: \begin{align} The Clean Water Act (CWA) contains a number of complex and interrelated elements of overall water quality management. We now compare the ratio of a grants effect on housing values (its measured benefits) to its costs. Has Surface Water Quality Improved since the Clean Water Act? We find large declines in most pollutants that the Clean Water Act targeted. This is potentially informative because increased taxes, sewer fees, or changes in other municipal expenditures are likely to be concentrated in the municipal authority managing the treatment plant, whereas the change in water quality is relevant for areas further downstream. Iowa State and Center for Agricultural Research and Development. Hence decreases in acidic sulfur air pollution may have contributed to decreases in acidic water pollution. Our topic is clean water and sanitation. A city may spend a grant in years after it is received, so real pass-through may be lower than nominal pass-through. We find weak evidence that local residents value these grants, though estimates of increases in housing values are generally smaller than costs of the grant projects. Engineering calculations in USEPA (2000c) suggest that the efficiency with which treatment plants removed pollution grew faster in the 1960s than in the 1980s or 1990s. Fifth, the 25-mile radius is only designed to capture 95% of recreational trips. TableV analyzes how Clean Water Act grants affect housing. We estimate the value of wetlands for flood mitigation across the US using detailed flood claims and land use data. 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Standard errors are clustered by watershed. Two studies report that concrete structures of treatment plants are expected to have a useful life of 50years, but mechanical and electrical components have a useful life of 1525years (USEPA 2002, 11; American Society of Civil Engineers 2011, 15). From Exxon to BP: Has Some Number Become Better than No Number? Other water pollution research generally specifies BOD and TSS in levels; practices vary for fecal coliforms. Effects of Clean Water Act Grants on Housing Demand. Journal of the Association of Environmental and Resource Economists, Environmental Policy Choice: Pollution Abatement Subsidies, Water Pollution Policy. Data on industrial water pollution in the 1960s is less detailed, though manufacturing water intake (which is highly correlated with pollution emissions) was flat between 1964 and 1973 due to increasing internal recycling of water (Becker 2016). We impute these values from a panel regression of log mean home values on year fixed effects and tract fixed effects. Keiser thanks the USDA for funding through the National Institute of Food and Agriculture Hatch project number IOW03909. First, this is the average cost to supply water quality via Clean Water Act grants; the marginal cost, or the cost for a specific river, may differ. Under the CWA, EPA has implemented pollution control programs such as setting wastewater standards for industry. Our interpretation is that once the Clean Water Act began, cities became less likely to spend municipal funds on wastewater treatment capital. Some studies in historic or developing country settings, where drinking water regulation is limited, relate surface water quality to health (Ebenstein 2012; Greenstone and Hanna 2014; Alsan and Goldin forthcoming). Leads decrease of about 10% a year may be related to air pollution regulations, such as prohibiting leaded gasoline. Data include years 19622001. Our recreation data also represent all trips, and water-based recreation trips might require different travel distances. The inverse propensity score reweighted estimates are designed to reflect the entire population of U.S. cities. Identification from a national time series is difficult, since other national shocks like the 19731975 and early 1980s recessions, high inflation and interest rates, and the OPEC crisis make the 1960s a poor counterfactual for the 1970s and 1980s. Our finding that benefits last about as long as engineering estimates suggest (30years) and for only the expected pollutants also are not exactly what this story would predict. Column (1) shows estimates for homes within a quarter mile of downstream waters. \end{equation}. We calculate the present value of rental payouts as |$rentalPayout\frac{1-(1+r)^{-n}}{r}$|, where rentalPayout is the change in total annual rents due to the grants, r = 0.0785 is the interest rate, and n = 30 is the duration of the benefits in years. Estimates without the basin year controls are more positive but also more sensitive to specification, which is one indication that the specification of equation (6) provides sharper identification. Calculations include grants given in 19622000. Ignoring such a large source of pollution can make aggregate abatement more costly. Second, due to nonuse or existence values, a person may value a clean river even if they never visit or live near that river. Smith and Wolloh (2012) study one measure of pollution (dissolved oxygen) in lakes beginning after the Clean Water Act and use data from one of the repositories we analyze. One general conclusion from this literature is that the effect of federal grants on local government expenditure substantially exceeds the effect of local income changes on local government expenditure (the latter is typically around 0.10). Electricity-generating units and other sources do contribute to thermal pollution in rivers, but increasing temperature is an outlier from decreasing trends in most other water pollutants. 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